Unearthed Objects and the Material Lives of Portable Artefacts. A TabulaRasa mission in Paris and Angers

After the Franconian survey carried out in January, TabulaRasa moved to France for a shorter but particularly dense research mission. Between 31 March and 2 April 2026, the work focused on two places and four main witnesses: three artefacts preserved at the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris (BnF), and the early medieval tablets from Saint-Martin d’Angers, currently kept at the Conservation départementale du patrimoine in the same city.

The aim was to examine directly a small but highly varied group of medieval and early modern wax tablets in order to document their material structure, binding systems, traces of use, and possible patterns of portability. The corpus was deliberately heterogeneous. At the BnF, the mission included a small wax tablet book preserved with its leather case, a large-format fourteenth-century wax register, and a group of loose tablets from Beauvais. In Angers, the focus shifted to two decorated wooden wax tablets, probably once forming a diptych, dated between the end of the 10^th and the beginning of the 11^th century.

This variety made the mission especially productive. The Paris material allowed us to investigate different forms of late medieval and early modern wax-tablet books: portable equipment, large administrative registers, repaired bindings, fastening systems, cases, and loose tablets. The Angers case, by contrast, opened a much rarer window onto the use of wax tablets around the year 1000, in a context supported by archaeological documentation and by historical photographs taken shortly after discovery.

As in previous missions, the main concern was not only to record cases, but to understand how the objects functioned: how they were assembled, opened, closed, carried, repaired, reused, and eventually preserved or transformed. In this respect, the Paris-Angers mission offered an important complement to the Franconian material, shifting attention from a dense regional corpus to a smaller set of objects whose chronology, preservation, and transmission histories are remarkably diverse.

Access, collaboration, and scholarly exchange

The mission, carried out by Daniele Ferraiuolo, was made possible thanks to the generous support of the institutions involved. At the Bibliothèque nationale de France, the examination of the selected objects was facilitated by Charlotte Denoël, cheffe du service des manuscrits médiévaux et de la Renaissance, who granted special authorisation to consult material normally excluded from standard access. This was an essential condition for the research, since the wax tablet books analysed during the mission required direct autoptic examination in order to assess their material features, their systems of construction, and the traces left by their use.

In Angers, the work was carried out thanks to the invaluable collaboration of Étienne Vacquet, conservateur at the Conservation départementale du patrimoine. The visit to Angers was especially important not only because it allowed a detailed examination of the tablets from Saint-Martin, but also because additional archaeological documentation relating to their discovery was made available. This material, which includes photographs, plans, and documentation connected with the excavation context, is currently under study and will be crucial for reconstructing the archaeological biography of the objects. For this reason, we are very grateful to Monsieur Vacquet!

The mission also benefited from direct scholarly exchange. On 31 March, the examination at the BnF took place in the presence of Élisabeth Lalou, whose pioneering work on medieval wax tablets remains a fundamental point of reference for the field. Her cataloguing and synthetic studies have provided one of the most important foundations for research on medieval wax tablets in Western Europe. The possibility of discussing the objects directly with her during the autoptic examination was especially valuable.

Additional perspectives were provided by Marc Smith, professor of Latin palaeography at the École nationale des chartes and École pratique des hautes études in Paris. His expertise in written practices, including informal, occasional, and scratched inscriptions, helped broaden the interpretative framework of the examination. These moments of discussion were not secondary to the mission: they were part of the research process itself. Wax tablets are objects whose interpretation depends on the convergence of archaeology, codicology, material culture, conservation history, and palaeography. The Paris-Angers mission confirmed once again how necessary this interdisciplinary approach is.

A wax tablet book in its case: Allemand 55 and the archaeology of a portable device

The first object examined at the Bibliothèque nationale de France was the Allemand 55, a wax tablet book conventionally dated to the 17^th century. The object consists of twelve wooden tablets, preserved together with a decorated leather case. Its overall dimensions are approximately 164 x 104 x 68 mm. The textual content has been described by Élisabeth Lalou as comptes ou recettes, suggesting an accounting or administrative function. Internal inscriptions also point to a German-speaking context, especially the regions of Brunswick and Grubenhagen.

From the point of view of material structure, Allemand 55 is a complete and exceptionally well-preserved object.

The front and back covers are anopisthographic, while the internal tablets contain rectangular wax recesses on both faces. The wax currently appears brown and preserves numerous traces of writing, erasure, surface levelling, and rewriting.

The two outer covers are especially interesting. Unlike the internal tablets, which are flat, the covers have a slightly plano-convex profile: the external surface appears gently rounded, while the inner face is comparatively flatter and functional. This type of shaping may have served both to give the closed book a more compact external profile and, probably, to make it easier to grasp and lift when placed on a flat surface.

The wax surfaces revealed particularly interesting evidence for repeated use. Two different types of marks can be observed. The first consists of a regular and extensive comb-like pattern, probably resulting from the levelling of the wax surface with a toothed or comb-like tool. The second consists of more localised erasures produced by scraping, leaving deeper and irregular traces clearly distinguishable from ordinary stylus incisions. These observations are important because they allow us to distinguish different gestures of maintenance: not all erasures or surface modifications are the same. Some relate to broad preparation of the writing surface; others correspond to more targeted interventions intended to remove specific portions of writing.

Traces of erasures on the wax layers (Daniele Ferraiuolo, courtesy of BnF)

The organisation of the written space is equally significant. The orientation of the text varies across the book. In some cases, the writing follows a portrait layout; in others, a landscape orientation, therefore parallel to the long side of the tablet. This flexibility suggests that the book was used in a dynamic and non-standardised way. The writing support was not necessarily perceived as a fixed sequence of pages to be read and written in a uniform direction. Instead, it appears to have been adapted according to practical needs, perhaps over several phases of use.

A particularly striking aspect of Allemand 55 is its leather case. The case is not a simple container, but an integral part of the portable writing apparatus. It has a rigid box-like structure, entirely covered with tooled geometric decoration arranged in regular fields. The decoration of the front and back is organised into vertical panels filled with rows of lozenge stamps. The upper element functions as a closing lid, creating a compact container for the tablet book.

Several functional details are especially important. The case preserves lateral pass-through elements associated with transport or closure, as well as a distinct lateral sheath intended to accommodate a stylus. Significantly, the stylus holder is present only on one side. These characteristics suggest a carefully designed ensemble in which protective container, writing support, fastening system, and writing implement were conceived as parts of a coherent functional unit.

The leather case of Allemand 55: right and left sides (Daniele Ferraiuolo, courtesy of BnF)

The case of Allemand 55 appears broadly comparable to late medieval and early modern portable containers for wax tablet books, although no exact parallel has yet been identified. Certain features recall other examples, such as the much smaller tablet book preserved at the Deutsches Ledermuseum in Offenbach (inv. no. 4119), whose leather case presents lateral pass-through elements and a possible stylus accommodation. The comparison must not be pushed too far, because the two objects differ substantially in size and configuration. Nevertheless, the recurrence of certain functional solutions suggests that Allemand 55 belongs to a broader tradition of portable writing equipment.

These observations may also raise further chronological questions, which are currently under study, since the object is now conventionally dated, as we said, to the 17^th century.

Keeping accounts in motion: Latin 10154 and the mechanics of a wax register

The second object examined at the BnF was Latin 10154, a large-format wax tablet book consisting of ten wooden tablets coated with black wax. The manuscript is generally dated between 1327 and 1352 and is traditionally interpreted as a working register connected with the expenses of a travel along the Rhine during the mid-fourteenth century. It entered the collections of the Bibliothèque nationale in 1833 through the acquisition of material from the Oberlin collection. The acquisition register describes it as a polyptych of ten wax tablets containing accounts in Latin or German concerning expenses made by a prince travelling along the river.

Unlike small “carnets” or pocket-sized tablets, Latin 10154 is a substantial object, measuring approximately 300 x 140 x 80 mm. It should therefore not be interpreted as a small handheld notebook, but rather as a larger register intended for repeated consultation and use.

Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Latin 10154 (Daniele Ferraiuolo, courtesy of BnF)

The artefact currently appears to be in a rather poor state of preservation. The wooden supports are heavily damaged along the margins and display numerous insect holes. Several structural elements have deteriorated, and the wax is preserved unevenly. Yet precisely because of this compromised state, the object reveals important information about its construction. Damage, loss, and repair make visible technical features that might otherwise remain hidden.

One of the most important aspects of Latin 10154 is its binding system. The tablets are connected through reused parchment strips passing directly through the thickness of the wooden supports. Three parchment strips are still visible along the spine, forming a flexible but resistant binding structure. This system recalls other medieval wax tablet books in which parchment strips were used to articulate the wooden leaves while allowing the object to open and close, as in the case of Offenbach, already mentioned.

Latin 10154 wax tablet book’s spine, details (Daniele Ferraiuolo, courtesy of BnF)

Several of the original parchment strips appear to have broken, and the resulting damage was addressed through the creation of new slits reinforced with small square parchment patches fixed to the spine by nails. These interventions are particularly interesting because they attest to attempts to preserve or restore the usability of the manuscript after the deterioration of the original binding structure.

The spine itself appears originally to have been covered by an additional parchment or leather layer, now mostly lost. Traces of its former presence are still visible, especially along the edge of the cover tablet. This observation is important because it suggests that the current exposed structure does not fully represent the original appearance of the book. What we see today is a partially dismantled or deteriorated state of a more finished binding arrangement.

Latin 10154 also preserves important evidence for its fastening system. A leather fastening strap remains attached to the back cover through a small metal plate fixed with rivets. At the opposite end of the strap, a second perforated metal fitting was designed to engage with a projecting metal peg fixed in the central area of the front cover. The closing mechanism therefore operated by folding the leather strap over the edge of the book and securing the perforated plate onto the peg, keeping the tablets firmly closed during transport, storage, and handling.

Fastening system of the Latin 10154, details (Daniele Ferraiuolo, courtesy of BnF)

This feature has broader comparative implications. A similar metal peg is visible on Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, Msc. Var. 15, a smaller wax tablet book examined during the Franconian mission. In the Bamberg case, the leather components of the fastening system are no longer preserved, making interpretation difficult. The Paris example, however, preserves both the peg and the corresponding strap. It therefore provides a valuable comparative framework for reconstructing closure systems that survive only fragmentarily in other examples.

Latin 10154 thus allows us to observe a complex combination of material features: large-format wax writing surfaces, parchment-strip binding, repairs, possible later interventions, and an original strap-based fastening system. It is a key witness for understanding how large wax tablet registers were made, maintained, and kept functional over time.

Names from the mud: the Beauvais carnet and the fragile survival of everyday notes

The third BnF case was the NAL 243, a group of four small wax tablets from Beauvais. These tablets, dated to the first half of the 14^th century, constitute an especially interesting example of small-format medieval wax tablets, not only because of their material characteristics, but also because their discovery is relatively well documented.

The four objects formed part of a larger group of ten similar wax tablets discovered by M. Viglas while excavating a garden occupying the site of the cemetery of the chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Châtel. According to the documentation transmitted by Olleris and read by Delisle at the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1877, the tablets were found in a pit more than one metre deep, mixed with earthenware vessels and faience plates, and surrounded by black, foul-smelling mud. Two of the ten tablets were broken by the workers at the moment of discovery.

This information is crucial. It tells us that the four preserved tablets are not an isolated group originally consisting of four elements, but the surviving part of a larger set. It also situates the objects within a disturbed but archaeologically meaningful context. The muddy conditions may have contributed to their preservation, but the circumstances of recovery also had a significant impact on their present state.

Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, NAL 243. From left to right, Tablet 1 and Tablet 2, Face A
(Daniele Ferraiuolo, courtesy of BnF)

The same documentation records that, after discovery, the tablets were immersed in water and slightly scraped in order to clean them. This post-discovery intervention significantly altered the objects. The current appearance of the wax therefore reflects not only medieval use and burial conditions, but also 20^th-century handling and cleaning practices. This is an important methodological point: the visible surface of a wax tablet is often the result of multiple histories, extending well beyond the period of its original use.

The four surviving tablets are small rectangular wooden supports, each provided with a wax recess on both faces. Their overall dimensions are approximately 79 x 41 mm, and each wax recess measures about 72 x 35 mm.

The visible surfaces provide important information. The tablets preserve wax on almost all faces, and the text remains sufficiently legible across most writing fields. This is particularly significant because, despite their disturbed state of conservation, the Beauvais tablets still offer a relatively favourable basis for palaeographical and textual analysis.

The text is arranged in landscape orientation. This layout is consistent with the small format of the objects and with the practical organisation of short notes. Delisle identified the content as lists of persons who had attended religious offices, probably connected with distributions made by a treasurer or similar official. The preserved names and expressions include references to days of the week, liturgical occasions, and individuals.

The material format and textual content are closely connected. The small size, the absence of binding holes or sewing channels, and the schematic arrangement of the text suggest that these were loose tablets, probably part of a practical set. They may originally have been kept together in a pouch, case, or container now lost. Their function seems to have been administrative and temporary, connected with the recording of attendance, distributions, and liturgical participation.

The wax appears today altered, with a dark olive or greyish tone and extensive whitish areas covering parts of the surface. It remains uncertain whether these white marks are efflorescences, degradation products, residues from post-discovery cleaning, or another form of surface alteration. Further conservation analysis would be necessary to understand the processes involved. What is already clear, however, is that NAL 243 is important not only for its content, but also for the way it documents the fragile relationship between excavation, conservation, and interpretation.

The Saint-Martin of Angers tablets and the hidden architecture of wax

The final and perhaps most striking case examined during the mission was the pair of wax tablets preserved at the Conservation départementale du patrimoine in Angers, under the inventory number DDOM96180. The objects are dated between the end of the 10^th century and the beginning of the 11^th century, placing them among the few known wax tablets dated between the early and high middle ages.

The tablets come from the medieval cloister of the monastery of Saint-Martin in Angers, formerly Saint-Maurille. They were discovered on 28 April 1924 during excavation work in the cloister, in a context described as a foul-smelling mud. This archaeological provenance is a key element in their importance. Unlike many wax tablets preserved through collecting histories, the Angers tablets can be connected to a specific site and to a documented discovery, not very dissimilar, in terms of stratigraphic composition, from that of the Beauvais carnet.

The archaeological documentation made available during the mission by Étienne Vacquet will allow this context to be studied in greater detail. It includes images, plans, and newspaper documentation relating to the site and the discovery, currently under study. This material will be essential for reconstructing the relationship between the tablets, the cloister, and the depositional environment in which they were found.

The two tablets most likely belonged to the same book, probably a diptych, although they are now unbound. Both are round-topped wooden tablets. Each combines a decorated external face with an internal face divided into four arched wax recesses. Tablet 1 measures approximately 239 x 74 mm, with a thickness varying between about 4 and 6 mm. Tablet 2 measures approximately 237 x 73 mm, with a thickness of about 3-4 mm, and is more severely damaged, especially in its lower part.

Angers, Conservation départementale du patrimoine, Tablets DDOM96180_1 (left) and 2 (right)
(Daniele Ferraiuolo, courtesy of Conservation départementale du patrimoine d’Angers)

The external faces are richly decorated. A central field with geometric interlace is framed within a round-topped panel, surrounded by an outer frame with vegetal scroll ornament. This decoration gives the tablets the appearance of small wooden book covers and reinforces the impression that they were conceived as a coherent diptych rather than as independent supports.

The internal faces are even more unusual. Each is divided into four round-topped wax recesses. The layout is strongly architectural: the two upper recesses are separated by a narrow column-like motif surmounted by an arched element, while the lower recesses are divided by a simpler vertical partition. This arrangement is very different from the rectangular wax fields commonly found in later medieval tablet books. It suggests a carefully planned design in which the organisation of the writing surface is integrated with the formal structure of the wooden support.

The wax survives today in a fragmentary and altered condition. It now appears mostly dark grey. Historical photographs taken shortly after the discovery show that the wax was once much better preserved and more continuous within the recesses. The present state is significantly poorer, with extensive losses, detachments from the base of the recesses, and isolated residual patches.

This deterioration has also affected the legibility of the text. In early photographic documentation, writing was clearly visible in at least some of the recesses. In particular, the lower-left wax recess of Tablet 2, Face A once preserved a wax layer and a four-line inscription that no longer survive today. The comparison between the historical photographs and the current state of the object is therefore essential. Without these early images, part of the textual and material evidence would be lost to interpretation.

The text has been interpreted, following Lalou and on the basis of Hubert’s edition, as a draft for an annalistic text. This interpretation is interesting because it broadens the functional profile of the object. If the text is indeed a draft or preparatory version of an annalistic passage, the tablets would document the use of wax as an intermediate support in the organisation of more structured textual content. This does not make the object unique in functional terms, but it adds an important dimension: wax tablets could participate not only in administration, accounting, or short-term notation, but also in processes of textual composition.

The articulation system of the Angers tablets is one of the most important results of the mission. Along the inner edge of each tablet, two small squared holes are associated with rectangular recesses cut into the frame. These recesses appear to communicate with narrow slots opening onto the inner edge of the tablet. This suggests that a connecting element passed through the thickness of the frame rather than being simply applied to the surface.

This system was therefore not based on cords or flexible sewing. Instead, it seems to have used inserted elements housed within the wooden structure itself. The arrangement strongly suggests a hinge-like articulation between the two leaves of the diptych. The squared holes may have accommodated pins, rivets, or locking elements connected to small hinge components inserted into the rectangular slots.

The use of fittings is possible, and perhaps likely given the precision and reduced scale of the openings, but it cannot be demonstrated at this stage.

What can be stated with more confidence is that the Angers tablets preserve evidence for a carefully planned joining system, structurally integrated into the inner frames and different from the parchment-strip or cord-based bindings observed in many later medieval wax tablet books. This observation is technically significant, but it must remain part of an ongoing investigation. The typology of such articulation systems is currently being studied through comparison with later medieval examples and with the broader documentation of tablet-like objects, including ivory diptychs and wax tablets. For the moment, the Angers case should therefore be understood as an important point of observation within a wider comparative enquiry, rather than as the basis for a definitive typological or chronological conclusion.

* The materials presented in this post are currently being studied within the framework of the TabulaRasa project and will be the subject of forthcoming scientific publications.

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